Visual Representations of the Safavid Judicial System in the Islamic Painting Tradition

The depiction of individuals with their hands tied to pālāhang reflects typical Safavid judicial convictions and customary punishments. The prevalence of these pictures suggest their significance for the Safavids. This article examines 23 visual representations of this specific form of punishment, compares the laws related to the Safavid judicial system with the paintings produced, and uncovers the roots of the punishment tools used by the Safavids. The study addresses the following questions: Who are the individuals depicted bound to pālāhang? What is the reason for depicting kings with tied hands? And who were the artists responsible for creating these images? According to the current study, these types of illustrations—and the presence of a significant number of them in Islamic manuscripts—were designed to humiliate the Safavids’ principal enemy, the Uzbeks, and to deter potential attacks.